Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances

General Overview

Clause 18.1 is a critical component in managing risks in construction contracts under the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999. Its comprehensive approach to insurance obligations ensures that both the Contractor and the Employer are protected against various risks inherent in construction projects. This clause is particularly relevant in countries like the United States, where adherence to technical standards, building codes, and environmental laws is paramount. By understanding and applying Clause 18.1, parties can mitigate risks effectively, ensuring project success and legal compliance.

In summary, Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances is not just a contractual formality but a vital tool for risk management in construction contracts. Its detailed provisions regarding insurance coverage, compliance, and remedies for non-compliance make it a key clause for contractors, employers, and other stakeholders in the construction industry. Understanding and adhering to Clause 18.1 can significantly mitigate financial and legal risks, contributing to the overall success of construction projects.

Purpose and Implications of Clause 18.1

The primary purpose of Clause 18.1 is to delineate the responsibilities of the insuring party, whether it’s the Contractor or the Employer, in securing appropriate insurance policies. This clause safeguards the interests of both parties by mandating insurance coverage that aligns with the agreed terms and conditions. It’s crucial in managing risks associated with construction projects, particularly in countries like the United States where legal and financial liabilities can be substantial.

Key Aspects of Clause 18.1

1. Identification of the Insuring Party: The clause clearly defines ‘insuring Party’ and establishes their responsibility for obtaining and maintaining insurance as specified.
2. Approval of Insurers and Terms: Insurance must be effected with approved insurers and on terms consistent with pre-agreed conditions. This ensures that the insurance coverage is not only adequate but also mutually agreeable.
3. Separate Coverage for Joint Insured: The policy must cover each joint insured independently, ensuring comprehensive protection for all parties involved.
4. Currency of Payments: Insurance policies must allow for payments in currencies relevant to rectifying any loss or damage, which is particularly important in international projects.
5. Submission of Evidence and Policies: The insuring Party is obligated to submit proof of insurance and policy copies within specified periods, ensuring transparency and compliance.
6. Compliance with Policy Conditions: Both parties must adhere to the insurance policy conditions, and the insuring Party must keep insurers informed of any significant changes in project execution.
7. Prohibition of Unilateral Alteration: Any material alteration to the insurance terms requires mutual consent, preventing unilateral decisions that could affect the risk profile.
8. Remedies for Non-Compliance: If the insuring Party fails to maintain required insurances, the other party has the right to obtain insurance and adjust the contract price accordingly.
9. Limitation of Liability: The clause does not limit the obligations, liabilities, or responsibilities of either party under other contract terms.

Expert Opinion and Case Studies

In the context of the United States, where construction projects often involve complex legal and environmental considerations, Clause 18.1 plays a crucial role. For instance, adherence to technical standards and building codes is essential, and insurance policies must reflect these requirements. Environmental laws also demand specific coverage, especially in projects with significant ecological impacts.

A case study from a U.S. construction project can illustrate the application of Clause 18.1. Suppose a contractor fails to maintain liability insurance as required, leading to financial losses due to an on-site accident. Under Clause 18.1, the employer could secure the necessary insurance and adjust the contract price, ensuring project continuity and legal compliance.

Detailed Explanation of Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances in FIDIC Yellow Book 1999

Clause 18.1 of the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999 is a fundamental provision that outlines the general requirements for insurances in construction contracts. This clause is crucial for ensuring that both the Contractor and the Employer are adequately protected against potential risks and liabilities during the execution of a project. Let’s delve into its key components, process flow, applicability, and provide a general overview.

Key Components of Clause 18.1

1. Definition of ‘Insuring Party’: It specifies who is responsible for obtaining and maintaining the insurance for each type.
2. Approval of Insurers and Terms: Insurance must be effected with approved insurers and on terms consistent with pre-agreed conditions.
3. Separate Coverage for Joint Insured: The policy must cover each joint insured independently.
4. Currency of Payments: Insurance policies must allow for payments in currencies necessary to rectify the loss or damage.
5. Submission of Evidence and Policies: The insuring Party is obligated to submit proof of insurance and policy copies within specified periods.
6. Compliance with Policy Conditions: Both parties must adhere to the insurance policy conditions.
7. Prohibition of Unilateral Alteration: Any material alteration to the insurance terms requires mutual consent.
8. Remedies for Non-Compliance: Outlines steps if the insuring Party fails to maintain required insurances.
9. Liability Limitation: Clarifies that the clause does not limit other contractual obligations and liabilities.

Process Flow of Clause 18.1

1. Identifying the Insuring Party: Determine whether the Contractor or the Employer is responsible for obtaining the insurance.
2. Securing Approval for Insurers and Terms: Obtain approval for insurers and agree on insurance terms.
3. Effecting Insurance Policies: The insuring Party effects insurance policies as per agreed terms.
4. Providing Evidence of Insurance: Submit proof of insurance and policy copies within the stipulated time frame.
5. Maintaining Compliance: Both parties must comply with the insurance policy conditions and keep insurers informed of any project changes.
6. Handling Non-Compliance: If the insuring Party fails to maintain insurance, the other party may secure insurance and adjust the contract price.

Applicability of Clause 18.1

Clause 18.1 is applicable in scenarios where there is a need to manage risks related to construction projects. This includes:

• During the project planning phase, where insurance requirements are determined.
• Throughout the project execution, where compliance with insurance terms is maintained.
• In situations where there are changes in project scope or conditions, requiring adjustments in insurance coverage.

Interaction of Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances with Other Clauses in FIDIC Yellow Book 1999

Clause 18.1 of the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999, which deals with the general requirements for insurances, interacts with several other clauses in the contract. These interactions are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the contract’s risk management and liability framework. Let’s explore how Clause 18.1 interacts with other clauses, specifying and elaborating on their shared effects.

Interaction with Clause 18.2 (Insurance for Works and Contractor’s Equipment)

• Clause 18.1 sets the foundation for insurance requirements, while Clause 18.2 specifically details the insurance for works and the Contractor’s equipment.
• The approval of insurers and terms under Clause 18.1 directly influences the insurance policies effected under Clause 18.2.
• Clause 18.2 extends the general requirements of Clause 18.1 by specifying the minimum insurance cover needed for the works and equipment.

Interaction with Clause 18.3 (Insurance against Injury to Persons and Damage to Property)

• Clause 18.1‘s stipulations on the insuring Party and the approval process for insurance terms are foundational for the liability insurance detailed in Clause 18.3.
• The general insurance requirements in Clause 18.1 are applied and extended in Clause 18.3 to cover specific liabilities for injury and property damage.

Interaction with Clause 17 (Risk and Responsibility)

• Clause 17 outlines the risks and responsibilities of the parties, which are insured against as per the requirements of Clause 18.1.
• The allocation of risks in Clause 17 often determines the nature and extent of insurance coverage required under Clause 18.1.

Interaction with Clause 4 (The Contractor) and Clause 5 (Nominated Subcontractors)

• Clause 4 and Clause 5 define the responsibilities of the Contractor and the use of subcontractors, respectively. The insurance requirements in Clause 18.1 must encompass the activities and liabilities arising from these clauses.

Interaction with Clause 11 (Defects Liability) and Clause 12 (Tests after Completion)

• The insurance policies maintained as per Clause 18.1 may need to cover liabilities and risks associated with defects and testing phases as outlined in Clauses 11 and 12.

Detailed Explanation of the Interactions

1. Foundational Role of Clause 18.1: Clause 18.1 serves as the contractual bedrock for all insurance-related provisions in the contract. It establishes the basic framework within which specific insurance requirements in other clauses operate.
2. Risk Allocation and Insurance Requirement: The interaction between Clause 18.1 and risk-related clauses like Clause 17 is significant. The way risks are allocated between the parties influences the insurance requirements. For instance, risks retained by the Contractor under Clause 17 would typically be covered by insurance policies as per Clause 18.1.
3. Coverage Scope and Duration: The interaction with Clause 18.2 and Clause 18.3 is particularly important in defining the scope and duration of insurance coverage. These clauses specify what needs to be insured (e.g., works, equipment, liability for injury) and for how long, based on the general requirements laid out in Clause 18.1.
4. Compliance and Evidence of Insurance: The requirement in Clause 18.1 to provide evidence of insurance impacts other clauses by ensuring that the Contractor complies with the insurance obligations throughout the project lifecycle, including phases covered under Clauses 11 and 12.
5. Contractor’s Responsibilities and Subcontracting: The interactions with Clause 4 and Clause 5 ensure that the Contractor’s insurance covers all aspects of the work, including those performed by subcontractors.

In summary, Clause 18.1 interacts with various other clauses in the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999, creating a comprehensive network of provisions that collectively manage the risks and liabilities in a construction contract. Understanding these interactions is key to grasping the full extent of insurance requirements and their implications on the overall project execution and risk management.

Essential Factors in Implementing Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances in FIDIC Yellow Book 1999

When employing Clause 18.1 of the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999, several essential factors must be considered to ensure its effective implementation. These factors are critical for managing risks and fulfilling contractual obligations related to insurance in construction projects.

1. Identification of the Insuring Party

• Clear Determination: Ascertain whether the Contractor or the Employer is the ‘insuring Party’ for each type of insurance required.
• Responsibility Assignment: Ensure that the designated insuring Party understands and accepts their responsibility for obtaining and maintaining the necessary insurance.

2. Approval of Insurers and Insurance Terms

• Insurer Selection: Choose insurers that are approved by both the Employer and the Contractor.
• Consistency with Agreed Terms: The insurance terms must align with any pre-agreement made before the contract acceptance.

3. Coverage for Joint Insured

• Independent Coverage: Ensure that the insurance policy provides separate coverage for each joint insured.
• Policy Understanding: Understand the implications of having additional joint insured under the policy.

4. Currency and Payment Terms

• Appropriate Currency: The insurance must cover payments in the currencies required to rectify any loss or damage.
• Usage of Insurance Payments: Ensure that payments received from insurers are used specifically for rectifying the loss or damage.

5. Submission of Evidence and Policy Documents

• Timely Submission: Provide evidence of the effected insurances and copies of the policies within the periods stated in the contract.
• Documentation Accuracy: Ensure that all submitted documents accurately reflect the insurance coverage as per the contract requirements.

6. Compliance with Policy Conditions

• Adherence to Conditions: Both parties must comply with the stipulated conditions of the insurance policies.
• Informing Insurers of Changes: Keep the insurers informed about any relevant changes in the execution of the works.

7. Restrictions on Altering Insurance Terms

• Mutual Consent for Changes: Any material alteration to the terms of insurance should be made only with the prior approval of both parties.

8. Remedies for Non-Compliance

• Alternative Measures: Understand the steps to be taken if the insuring Party fails to maintain the required insurance, including the possibility of the other party effecting insurance and adjusting the contract price.

9. Understanding the Clause’s Limitations

• Contractual Obligations: Recognize that Clause 18.1 does not limit other obligations, liabilities, or responsibilities under the contract.

10. Integration with Other Contract Clauses

• Inter-Clause Coordination: Be aware of how Clause 18.1 interacts with other clauses, such as Clauses 18.2 and 18.3, and ensure coordinated implementation.

In summary, effectively implementing Clause 18.1 requires a thorough understanding of its requirements, careful coordination with related contract provisions, and diligent management of insurance-related responsibilities. These factors are vital for ensuring that the risks associated with construction projects are adequately covered, and contractual obligations are met.

Sequence of Interactions Related to Clause 18.1 General Requirements for Insurances

The implementation of Clause 18.1 in the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999 involves a sequence of interactions between various parties and clauses. This sequence is pivotal for ensuring that the insurance requirements are adequately met and managed throughout the construction project. Let’s detail these interactions:

1. Determination of the Insuring Party

• Interaction: The Contractor and Employer determine who the ‘insuring Party’ is for each type of insurance.
• Outcome: Clear assignment of responsibility for obtaining and maintaining insurance.

2. Approval of Insurers and Terms

• Interaction: The insuring Party seeks approval from the other party (Employer or Contractor) for the choice of insurers and the terms of insurance.
• Outcome: Ensures that the insurance is effected with mutually agreed-upon insurers and terms.

3. Coverage for Joint Insured

• Interaction: The insuring Party arranges for separate coverage for each joint insured under the policy.
• Outcome: Individual protection for each party under the joint insurance policy.

4. Currency and Payment Terms

• Interaction: The insuring Party sets up insurance payments in the necessary currencies for rectifying loss or damage.
• Outcome: Financial readiness to address any loss or damage in appropriate currencies.

5. Submission of Evidence and Policies

• Interaction: The insuring Party submits evidence of insurance and policy copies to the other party.
• Outcome: Transparency and proof of compliance with the insurance requirements.

6. Compliance with Policy Conditions

• Interaction: Both parties adhere to the conditions of the insurance policies.
• Outcome: Ensures that the insurance remains valid and effective throughout the project.

7. Restrictions on Altering Insurance Terms

• Interaction: Any material alteration to the insurance terms requires mutual consent from both parties.
• Outcome: Prevents unilateral changes that could affect the risk profile or coverage.

8. Remedies for Non-Compliance

• Interaction: If the insuring Party fails to maintain insurance, the other party may secure insurance and adjust the contract price.
• Outcome: Ensures continuous coverage and addresses the financial implications of non-compliance.

9. Understanding Clause Limitations

• Interaction: Both parties acknowledge that Clause 18.1 does not limit other contractual obligations and liabilities.
• Outcome: Clarity on the scope and limitations of Clause 18.1.

10. Coordination with Other Clauses

• Interaction: Clause 18.1 is coordinated with other relevant clauses (e.g., Clauses 18.2, 18.3, 17).
• Outcome: Comprehensive risk management and insurance coverage throughout the project.

In summary, the sequence of interactions related to Clause 18.1 involves a series of steps that ensure the proper establishment, maintenance, and compliance of insurance requirements in a construction contract. These interactions are critical for mitigating risks and protecting the interests of all parties involved in the project.

Flowchart

Detailed Explanation of the Flowchart

1. Start: Implementing Clause 18.1: The process begins with the initiation of implementing Clause 18.1.
2. Determine Insuring Party: A critical decision point where it’s determined whether the Contractor or the Employer is the insuring Party.
3. Contractor as Insuring Party: If the Contractor is the insuring Party, the process moves to the next step where the Employer approves the insurers and terms.
4. Employer as Insuring Party: If the Employer is the insuring Party, the Contractor approves the insurers and terms.
5. Approval of Insurers and Terms: Depending on who the insuring Party is, the other party (Employer or Contractor) approves the insurers and the terms of the insurance.
6. Coverage for Joint Insured: Establish coverage for each joint insured under the policy.
7. Currency and Payment Terms: Set up insurance payments in the necessary currencies for rectifying loss or damage.
8. Submission of Evidence and Policies: Provide timely evidence of insurance and copies of policies.
9. Compliance with Policy Conditions: Adhere to the conditions of the insurance policies and inform insurers of project changes.
10. Restrictions on Altering Insurance Terms: Make material alterations to insurance terms only with mutual consent.
11. Remedies for Non-Compliance: Implement steps if the insuring Party fails to maintain required insurances.
12. Understanding Clause Limitations: Recognize that the clause does not limit other contractual obligations and liabilities.
13. End: Effective Implementation of Clause 18.1: Ensuring that all aspects of the clause are properly addressed and implemented.

Sequence Diagram for Implementing Clause 18.1

Detailed Explanation of the Sequence Diagram

1. Determine Insuring Party: The Contractor and Employer collaborate to determine who will be the insuring Party. This decision is foundational to the implementation of Clause 18.1.
2. Approve Insurers and Terms: The Employer reviews and approves the insurers and terms proposed by the Contractor. This step ensures mutual agreement on the insurance provisions.
3. Effect Insurance: The Contractor, as the insuring Party, proceeds to effect insurance with the chosen insurer.
4. Provide Insurance Policy: The Insurer issues the insurance policy to the Contractor, formalizing the insurance coverage.
5. Submit Evidence of Insurance: The Contractor submits evidence of the effected insurance to the Employer, demonstrating compliance with Clause 18.1.
6. Notify Compliance: The Employer informs the Engineer of the compliance with the insurance requirements. This step is crucial for maintaining transparency and record-keeping.
7. Inform of Policy Changes: If there are any changes to the insurance policy, the Contractor informs the Employer. This ensures that all parties are aware of the current terms of insurance.
8. Approve/Deny Changes: The Employer reviews any proposed changes to the insurance policy and either approves or denies them. This step is vital to maintain control over the risk management aspects of the project.
9. Remedies for Non-Compliance: In case of non-compliance by the Contractor in maintaining the required insurance, the Employer may implement remedies, such as securing insurance themselves and adjusting the contract price.
10. Acknowledge Clause Limitations: Both parties acknowledge the limitations of Clause 18.1, understanding that it does not override other contractual obligations and liabilities.
11. Coordinate with Other Clauses: Finally, the Employer and Contractor coordinate the implementation of Clause 18.1 with other relevant clauses in the contract, ensuring a holistic approach to contract management and risk mitigation.

This sequence diagram provides a clear and structured overview of the steps involved in implementing Clause 18.1, highlighting the critical interactions between the Contractor, Employer, Insurer, and Engineer. Understanding this sequence is essential for effectively managing the insurance requirements in construction contracts as per the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999.

Checklists

1. Checklist for Proficient Execution and Deployment of Clause 18.1

Step	Action Item	Details	Responsible Party	Status
1	Determine Insuring Party	Identify whether Contractor or Employer is the insuring party	Contractor & Employer	[ ]
2	Approve Insurers and Terms	Select insurers and agree on insurance terms	Insuring Party & Other Party	[ ]
3	Effect Insurance	Obtain necessary insurance policies	Insuring Party	[ ]
4	Submit Evidence of Insurance	Provide proof of insurance and policy copies	Insuring Party	[ ]
5	Notify Compliance	Inform Engineer of insurance compliance	Employer	[ ]
6	Monitor Policy Changes	Keep track of any changes to the insurance policy	Insuring Party	[ ]
7	Approve/Deny Policy Changes	Review and approve/deny any policy changes	Other Party	[ ]
8	Implement Remedies for Non-Compliance	Address any non-compliance issues	Non-Insuring Party	[ ]
9	Acknowledge Clause Limitations	Understand the scope and limitations of Clause 18.1	Both Parties	[ ]
10	Coordinate with Other Clauses	Ensure alignment with other contract clauses	Both Parties	[ ]

2. Checklist for Applying and Overseeing Clause 18.1

Step	Action Item	Details	Responsible Party	Status
1	Verify Insuring Party Identification	Confirm the designated insuring party	Project Manager	[ ]
2	Review Insurance Terms Approval	Check if insurance terms are approved	Legal Team	[ ]
3	Confirm Insurance Effectuation	Ensure insurance policies are in place	Insurance Coordinator	[ ]
4	Validate Evidence Submission	Verify submission of insurance documents	Compliance Officer	[ ]
5	Compliance Notification	Ensure Engineer is notified of compliance	Project Manager	[ ]
6	Policy Change Alerts	Stay updated on any insurance policy changes	Insurance Coordinator	[ ]
7	Policy Change Approvals	Approve or deny policy changes	Legal Team	[ ]
8	Address Non-Compliance	Take necessary actions for any non-compliance	Project Manager	[ ]
9	Clause Limitation Awareness	Ensure understanding of Clause 18.1 limitations	Legal Team	[ ]
10	Integration with Contract	Check Clause 18.1 integration with other clauses	Legal Team	[ ]

3. Checklist for Execution and Monitoring of Clause 18.1

Step	Action Item	Details	Responsible Party	Status
1	Confirm Insuring Party Role	Ensure clarity on who is the insuring party	Supervisor	[ ]
2	Insurers and Terms Confirmation	Confirm insurers and terms are set	Supervisor	[ ]
3	Insurance Policy Acquisition	Acquire necessary insurance policies	Insurance Manager	[ ]
4	Documentation of Insurance	Ensure all insurance documents are collected	Documentation Officer	[ ]
5	Engineer Notification	Notify Engineer of compliance status	Supervisor	[ ]
6	Monitor Insurance Policy	Regularly check for policy updates	Insurance Manager	[ ]
7	Review Policy Modifications	Assess any proposed policy changes	Supervisor	[ ]
8	Manage Non-Compliance Issues	Handle any issues of non-compliance	Supervisor	[ ]
9	Understand Clause Constraints	Be aware of the limitations of Clause 18.1	Supervisor	[ ]
10	Cross-Check with Other Clauses	Ensure Clause 18.1 aligns with other contract clauses	Supervisor	[ ]

Scenarios and Sample Letter Compositions Related to Clause 18.1

Scenario 1: Notification of Insuring Party

Purpose: To inform the other party about who has been designated as the insuring party as per Clause 18.1.

Sample Letter:

[Your Company Letterhead]
[Date]

[Recipient’s Name]
[Recipient’s Company]
[Company Address]

Dear [Recipient’s Name],

Subject: Designation of Insuring Party as per Clause 18.1 of Contract

I am writing to inform you that as per the requirements of Clause 18.1 of our contract (Contract No. [XXXX]), [Your Company Name] has been designated as the insuring party for the necessary insurance coverage.

In accordance with the clause, we are in the process of selecting appropriate insurers and will ensure that the terms of the insurance are consistent with our mutual agreement. We will provide you with the details of the insurance policy and the evidence of insurance once the process is completed.

We look forward to your cooperation and support in this matter. Please feel free to contact us if you need any further information or clarification.

Sincerely,

[Your Name]
[Your Position]
[Your Contact Information]

Scenario 2: Request for Approval of Insurance Terms

Purpose: To seek approval from the other party for the proposed insurance terms and insurers.

Sample Letter:

[Your Company Letterhead]
[Date]

[Recipient’s Name]
[Recipient’s Company]
[Company Address]

Dear [Recipient’s Name],

Subject: Approval of Insurance Terms and Insurers as per Clause 18.1

As per our obligations under Clause 18.1 of our contract (Contract No. [XXXX]), we have identified suitable insurers for the required insurance coverage and have negotiated terms that we believe are in our mutual best interest.

Enclosed with this letter, you will find the proposed insurance terms and details about the selected insurers. We kindly request your review and approval of these terms and insurers, as required by the contract.

We believe that these terms provide comprehensive coverage and are aligned with the objectives of our project. Your prompt response will be appreciated to ensure timely compliance with our insurance obligations.

Please contact us if you have any questions or require additional information.

Sincerely,

[Your Name]
[Your Position]
[Your Contact Information]

Scenario 3: Notification of Compliance with Insurance Requirements

Purpose: To notify the other party that the insurance requirements as per Clause 18.1 have been met.

Sample Letter:

[Your Company Letterhead]
[Date]

[Recipient’s Name]
[Recipient’s Company]
[Company Address]

Dear [Recipient’s Name],

Subject: Compliance with Insurance Requirements as per Clause 18.1

I am pleased to inform you that [Your Company Name] has successfully complied with the insurance requirements stipulated in Clause 18.1 of our contract (Contract No. [XXXX]). We have effected the necessary insurance and have ensured that all terms and conditions are in line with our agreement.

Enclosed are copies of the insurance policy and evidence of the insurance coverage. This documentation confirms our commitment to upholding the terms of our contract and ensuring the protection of our mutual interests in this project.

We will continue to monitor and maintain the insurance as required and will keep you informed of any significant changes or updates.

Thank you for your cooperation and support in this matter.

Sincerely,

[Your Name]
[Your Position]
[Your Contact Information]

Common Misunderstandings Associated with Clause 18.1

1. Misunderstanding of ‘Insuring Party’ Role: Often, there is confusion about who should be the ‘insuring Party’. It’s important to clearly determine this based on the contract specifics.
2. Assumption of Automatic Coverage: Some parties may assume that all risks are automatically covered. However, the coverage depends on the specific terms agreed upon and the types of insurance effected.
3. Overlooking the Approval Requirement: The requirement for mutual approval of insurers and terms is sometimes overlooked, which can lead to disputes or inadequate coverage.
4. Misinterpretation of Coverage Scope: There can be misunderstandings about what is covered under the insurance policies. It’s crucial to understand the scope of coverage, including any exclusions or limitations.
5. Neglecting Compliance with Policy Conditions: Failing to comply with the conditions stipulated in the insurance policies can invalidate the coverage, a fact often missed by parties.
6. Ignoring the Need for Timely Evidence Submission: Delay in submitting evidence of insurance and policy documents can lead to non-compliance issues.

Understanding these FAQs and common misunderstandings can help parties involved in a construction contract under the FIDIC Yellow Book 1999 to effectively manage their insurance obligations and avoid potential disputes or coverage gaps.